For example, a study by Walton and Spencer (2009) illustrates that under conditions that reduce psychological threat, students for whom a stereotype about their social group exists perform better than nonstereotyped students at the same level of past performance (see Figure 6-1). information. The adoption of a mastery goal orientation to learning is likely to be beneficial for learning, while pursuit of performance goals is associated with poor learning-related outcomes. Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email. This example is a reminder that sometimes the materials and strategies that teachers intend to support learning can have the opposite effect for some students. Measures and instruments Intrinsic and Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom. 4 The 2006 study included 119 African American and 119 European American students; the 2009 study was a 2-year follow-up with the same sample. Teachers can influence the goals learners adopt during learning, and learners perceptions of classroom goal structures are better predictors of learners goal orientations than are their perceptions of their parents goals. Researchers have explored the mechanisms through which such experiences affect learning. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. This line of research has also suggested particular characteristics of texts that are associated with learner interest. Some neurobiological evidence, for example, suggests that compelling narratives that trigger emotions (such as admiration elicited by a story about a young person who becomes a civil rights leader for his community) may activate a mindset focused on a possible future or values. Students praised for ability engaged in behaviors that may have boosted their self-esteem but were not likely to facilitate more learning or preparation for test-taking in the future. To be negatively affected, a person must be exposed to and perceive a potential cue in the environment and be aware of a stereotype about the social group with which he identifies (Aronson et al., 1999). The Self-regulated The authors found that the designs developed separately were more effective and concluded that when students refined their initial designs, they were trapped by their initial decisions. Steele has noted that stereotype threat is most likely in areas of performance in which individuals are particularly motivated. mindset (with respect to whether difficult tasks are ones that people like me do) (Immordino-Yang et al., 2012). Over the past several decades, researchers have attempted to discern the influence of culture on a persons self-construal, or definition of herself in reference to others. For example, priming interventions such as those that encourage participants to call up personal memories of cross-cultural experiences (Tadmor et al., 2013) have been used successfully to shift students from their tendency to take one cultural perspective or the other. As part of the Motivational Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) designed to identify various motivation orientations and learning strategies, intrinsic goal orientation is represented as students intrinsic personal goals and orientations put forward to achieve success within a specific course (Pintrich et al., 1991). throughout the life course. article continues While empirical and theoretical work in this area continues to develop, recent research does strongly support the following conclusion: CONCLUSION 6-1: Motivation to learn is influenced by the multiple goals that individuals construct for themselves as a result of their life and school experiences and the sociocultural context in which learning takes place. Stereotype threat is believed to undermine performance by lowering executive functioning and heightening anxiety and worry about what others will think if the individual fails, which robs the person of working memory resources. Dweck (1986) argued that achievement goals reflect learners underlying theories of the nature of intelligence or ability: whether it is fixed (something with which one is born) or malleable. Social dimensions of identity are linked to social roles or characteristics that make one recognizable as a member of a group, such as being a woman or a Christian (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). It also appears that the learner must tie her identity to the domain of skills. The next section examines types of goals and research on their influence. However, educators can take into account the influences that research has identified as potentially causing, exacerbating, or ameliorating the effects of stereotype threat on their own students motivation, learning, and performance. When learners with performance goals try to recall what they learned, they do not get the benefit of this retrieval-induced strengthening of their memory for other information (Ikeda et al., 2015). These factors include learners beliefs and values, personal goals, and social and cultural context. to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time. The teacher reported that from March through September this student was judged consistently as green (successful) because he worked hard and interacted appropriately with others. The 2010 study included a total of 207 (54% female) high school students from ninth through twelfth grade. The implementation level of theories such as social cognitive theory and expectancy theory is still in initial stages but can significantly contribute to understanding motivation in learning as well as other aspects of life where motivation is crucial. 1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory Intrinsic vs. extrinsic A common distinction made in the literatureis between extrinsic and intrinsic forms of Some have focused on goals as motives or reasons to learn (Ames and Ames, 1984; Dweck and Elliott, 1983; Locke et al., 1981; Maehr, 1984; Nicholls, 1984). Related research indicates that enhanced motivation is dependent on learners taking charge of their own learning (Lamb 2001; da Silva 2002; Sakui 2002; Takagi 2003; Ushioda 2003, 2006). This paper reports on a study of five motivational orientations in continuing education among working adults. This means the identity a person takes on at any moment is contingent on the circumstances, A number of studies indicate that a positive identification with ones racial or ethnic identity supports a sense of school belonging, as well as greater interest, engagement, and success in academic pursuits. 8. Individual or personal interest is viewed as a relatively stable attribute of the individual. How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures provides a much-needed update incorporating insights gained from this research over the past decade. . In stark contrast, when asked to solve the problems in classroom math terms, players were visibly distressed. For example, several studies have compared students indications of endorsement for performance-avoidance goals and found that Asian students endorsed these goals to a greater degree than European American students did (Elliot et al., 2001; Zusho and Njoku, 2007; Zusho et al., 2005). Taken together, these four components of These differences were presumed to be fixed and to dictate learners responses to features in the learning environment (method of instruction, incentives, and so on) and their motivation and performance. It is critical to learning and achievement across the life span in both informal settings and formal learning environments. Table 6-1 shows how learners mindsets can relate to their learning goals and behaviors. African American school-age children perform worse on achievement tests when they are reminded of stereotypes associated with their social group (Schmader et al., 2008; Wasserberg, 2014). Researchers have also tried to integrate the many concepts that have been introduced to explain this complex aspect of learning in order to formulate a more comprehensive understanding of motivational processes and their effects on learning. Some students were praised for their ability (well done for being so smart) and others for their effort (well done for working so hard). Learners who focus on learning rather than performance or who have intrinsic motivation to learn tend to set goals for themselves and regard increasing their competence to be a goal. WebCompetition is a motivational strategy that generally creates achievement orientations among the learners. Supporters of the personal orientation emphasize the teacher's quest for self -understanding and personal meaning. Third, the brief interventions are designed to indirectly affect how students think or feel about school or about themselves in school through experience, rather than attempting to persuade them to change their thinking, which is likely to be interpreted as controlling. Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. One group of interventions to address performance setbacks has focused on exercises to help students shift from a fixed view of intelligence to a growth theory of intelligence. Experiential learning People often learn best through experience. Some interventions focus on the psychological mechanisms that affect students construal of the learning environment and the goals they develop to adapt to that environment. WebFor example, in one study of college students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, Researchers are beginning to develop interventions motivated by theories of motivation to improve student motivation and learning. For instance, priming learners to adopt a multicultural mindset may support more-divergent thinking about multiple possible goals related to achievement, family, identity, and. Such research illustrates one of the keys to expectancy-value theory: the idea that expectancy and value dimensions work together. Consider the following letter, written by an elementary school student: Why does a standard chart meant to help the teachers monitor, reward, and correct students behavior seem to undermine this boys enthusiasm for school? If competence is the main motivator Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), which is incorporated into several models of motivation and learning, posits that the perceptions learners have about their competency or capabilities are critical to accomplishing a task or attaining other goals (Bandura, 1977). For example, an adolescent who aspires to become a physician but who continually fails her basic science courses may need to protect her sense of competence by either building new strategies for learning science or revising her occupational goals. WebMotivation is the force that propels an individuals engagement with a given course of action. Extrinsic rewards support engagement sufficient for learning, as shown in one study in which rewards were associated with enhanced memory consolidation but only when students perceived the material to be boring (Murayama and Kuhbandner, 2011). A key factor in motivation is an individuals mindset: the set of assumptions, values, and beliefs about oneself and the world that influence how one perceives, interprets, and acts upon ones environment (Dweck, 1999). (women and men do equally well on it) orin the threat conditionas one at which women do less well. The effects of negative stereotypes about African American and Latino students are among the most studied in this literature because these stereotypes have been persistent in the United States (Oyserman et al., 1995). Since then, researchers have continued to investigate the nature of learning and have generated new findings related to the neurological processes involved in learning, individual and cultural variability related to learning, and educational technologies. The notion of goal orientations plays a central role in models of language learning that include motivation. For example, women for whom the poor-at-math stereotype was primed reported. More research is needed on instructional methods and how the structure of formal schooling can influence motivational processes. It has been suggested that the longer-term effects of stereotype threat may be one cause of longstanding achievement gaps (Walton and Spencer, 2009). We begin by describing some of the primary theoretical perspectives that have shaped this research, but our focus is on four primary influences on peoples motivation to learn. The personal dimensions of identity tend to be traits (e.g., being athletic or smart) and values (e.g., being strongly committed to a set of religious or political beliefs). Students who shift between these two mindsets may take a reflective stance that enables them to inspire themselves and to persist and perform well on difficult tasks to attain future goals (Immordino-Yang and Sylvan, 2010). For example, some research suggests that intrinsic motivation to persist at a task may decrease if a learner receives extrinsic rewards contingent on performance. Teachers may participate in an online statistics course in order to satisfy job requirements for continuing education or because they view mastery of the topic as relevant to their identity as a teacher, or both. Research on motivation has been strongly driven by theories that overlap and contain similar concepts. In the short term, stereotype threat can result in upset, distraction, anxiety, and other conditions that interfere with learning and performance (Pennington et al., 2016). Teachers may be able to structure learning opportunities that incorporate diverse perspectives related to cultural self-construals in order to engage students more effectively (Morris et al., 2015). Goal Orientation Awareness. However, this meta-analysis was small: only 74 published and unpublished papers met criteria for inclusion, and the included studies involved a wide range of theoretical perspectives, learner populations, types of interventions, and measured outcomes. Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. Further, congruence in learners perceptions of their own and their schools mastery orientation is associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan and Maehr, 1999). In a study by Nasir and McKinney de Royston (2013), students were asked to solve problems involving averages and percentages in the context of either basketball or classroom math. It is the lens through which an individual makes sense of experiences and positions herself in the social world. These results are not a sufficient basis for conclusions about practice, but further research may help identify which interventions work best for whom and under which conditions, as well as factors that affect implementation (such as dosage, frequency, and timing). The report summarized insights on the nature of learning in school-aged children; described principles for the design of effective learning environments; and provided examples of how that could be implemented in the classroom. Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. In the case of women and math, for instance, women perform more poorly on the math test than would be expected given their actual ability (as demonstrated in other contexts) (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Although students achievement goals are relatively stable across the school years, they are sensitive to changes in the learning environment, such as moving from one classroom to another or changing schools (Friedel et al., 2007). In 2000, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition was published and its influence has been wide and deep. Research is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to shape learners thinking about future identities and persistence. The studies included using measures of authentic education outcomes (e.g., standardized test scores, persistence at a task, course choices, or engagement) and showed consistent, small effects across intervention type. This volume addresses motivation in language learning The dimensions of identity are dynamic, malleable, and very sensitive to the situations in which people find themselves (Oyserman, 2009; Steele, 1997). For example, children who are motivated tend to be engaged, persist longer, have better learning outcomes, and perform better than other children on standardized achievement tests (Pintrich, 2003). Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book. Since there is no one theory that represents the cognitive approach to motivation, we have selected one 1, p. 261). Agentically engaged students actively contribute to the learning process reacting to teachers instruction (Reeve, 2012). Within the category of performance-approach goals, researchers have identified both self-presentation goals (wanting others to think you are smart) and normative goals (wanting to outperform others) (Hulleman et al., 2010). This letter suggests that although the student came to school ready to engage with his teacher about interesting ideas and to learn new academic skills, the teachers strategy for managing the class caused him to infer that his teachers main goal was to control his behavior, rather than to help him learn. For example, African American adolescents with positive attitudes toward their racial/ethnic group express higher efficacy beliefs and report more interest and engagement in school (Chavous et al., 2003). Situational interest is malleable, can affect student engagement and learning, and is influenced by the tasks and materials educators use or encourage (Hunsu et al., 2017). 3 When an individual encounters negative stereotypes about his social identity group in the context of a cognitive task, he may underperform on that task; this outcome is attributed to stereotype threat (Steele, 1997). to use information-processing strategies, self-planning, and self-monitoring strategies (Ames and Archer, 1988; Schraw et al., 1995). Ready to take your reading offline? The interventions that have shown sustained effects on aspects of motivation and learning are based on relatively brief activities. WebThe second section (motivation orientations) is made up of seven different motivation orientations, which were 1. integrative orientation (Item 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13), 2. instrumental orientation (Item 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14), 3. intrinsic motivation (Item When learners perceive mastery goals are valued in the classsroom, they are more likely, TABLE 6-2 Achievement Goals and Classroom Climate. WebThis paper analyzes and determines the various socio-psychological orientations of undergraduate students studying General English in universities of Sirjan. People who adopt a mastery rather than a performance goal show a greater tendency toward the following except a preference to work on the task by themselves without asking for help from others By contrast, learners with performance goals tend to focus on learning individual bits of information separately, which improves speed of learning and immediate recall but may undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. Learners interest is an important consideration for educators because they can accommodate those interests as they design curricula and select learning resources. Over the past decade, a number of studies have suggested that interventions that enhance both short- and long-term motivation and achievement using brief interventions or exercises can be effective (e.g., Yeager and Walton, 2011). This perspective also suggests the potential benefits of encouraging learners to think about problems and goals from different cultural perspectives. When learners want and expect to succeed, they are more likely to value learning, persist at challenging tasks, and perform well. The idea that extrinsic rewards harm intrinsic motivation has been supported in a meta-analysis of 128 experiments (Deci et al., 1999, 2001). There is also strong evidence for the view that engagement and intrinsic motivation develop and change over timethese are not properties of the individual or the environment alone. Learners mastery and performance goals may also influence learning and achievement through indirect effects on cognition. Many studies of how interest affects learning have included measures of reading comprehension and text recall. In research that confronted women with negative gender-based stereotypes about their performance in mathematics but prompted them to think of other aspects of their identity, the women performed on par with men and appeared to be buffered against the deleterious effects of gender-based stereotypes. First, the interventions directly target the psychological mechanisms that affect student motivation rather than academic content. For example, activities that learners perceive as enjoyable or interesting can foster engagement without the learners. Children and adults who focus mainly on their own performance (such as on gaining recognition or avoiding negative judgments) are. FIGURE 1.General model for determinants and course of motivated action as product of person and situation (Heckhausen and Heckhausen, 2018).In the present study regarding learning mathematics, we operationalize person as motivational and emotional orientations (i.e., mathematics anxiety, self-concept, and enjoyment) in the situation of For example, in a study of African American children in an urban elementary school, introduction of a reading test as an index of ability hampered performance only among students who reported being aware of racial stereotypes about intelligence (Walton and Spencer, 2009). It is characterized by a learners enduring connection to a domain and willingness to re-engage in learning in that domain over time (Schiefele, 2009). The teacher's own development becomes a central goal of teacher education. Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits of several strategies for strengthening students sense of their competence for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). This cultural value may predispose students to adopt goals that help them to avoid the appearance of incompetence or negative judgments (i.e., performance-avoidance goals) (Elliot, 1997, 1999; Kitayama, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit, 1997). HPL I1 emphasized some key findings from decades of research on motivation to learn: 1 As noted in Chapter 1, this report uses the abbreviation HPL I for How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition (National Research Council, 2000). Mastery students are also persistenteven in the face of failureand frequently use failure as an opportunity to seek feedback and improve subsequent performance (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). They can operate separately (e.g., an African American) or in combination (an African American male student) (Oyserman, 2009). Among college-age African Americans, underperformance occurs in contexts in which students believe they are being academically evaluated (Steele and Aronson, 1995). According to self-efficacy theory, learning develops from multiple sources, including perceptions of ones past performance, vicarious experiences, performance feedback, affective/physiological states, and social influences. survey studies have offered insights about the ways learners who fit these two categories tend to vary in their assessment of goals, the goals they see as relevant or salient, and the ways in which their goals relate to other phenomena such as school achievement (King and McInerney, 2016). Learners goals may reflect the classrooms goal structure or the values teachers communicate about learning through their teaching practices (e.g., how the chairs are set up or whether the teacher uses cooperative learning groups) (see Kaplan and Midgley, 1999; Urdan et al., 1998). A number of studies suggest that situational interest can be a strong predictor of engagement, positive attitudes, and performance, including a study of students essay writing (Flowerday et al., 2004) and other research (e.g., Alexander and Jetton, 1996; Schraw and Lehman, 2001). This body of work seems to suggest that though there were differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones. The influence of motivational orientations The concept of value encompasses learners judgments about (1) whether a topic or task is useful for achieving learning or life goals, (2) the importance of a topic or task to the learners identity or sense of self, (3) whether a task is enjoyable or interesting, and (4) whether a task is worth pursuing (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). These researchers found that performance-avoidance goals can be adaptive and associated with such positive academic outcomes as higher levels of engagement, deeper cognitive processing, and higher achievement. Mueller and Dweck (1998) conducted two studies in which students received praise for their performance on a reasoning test. Intrinsic motivation (IM) and extrinsic motivation (EM) were assessed using a decomposed version (Lemos & Verssimo, 2006) of the Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom (Harter, 1981). If not properly planed it could also leads to rivalry for the competitors. Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. Motivation is one of the key learner characteristics that determine the rate and success of language learning. To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. Specifically, learners with mastery goals tend to focus on relating new information to existing knowledge as they learn, which supports deep learning and long-term memory for the. The subjective and personal nature of the learners experiences and the dynamic nature of the learning environment require that motivational interventions be flexible enough to take account of changes in the individual and in the learning environment. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000), learners are intrinsically motivated to learn when they perceive that they have a high degree of autonomy and engage in an activity willingly, rather than because they are being externally controlled. A persons motivation to persist in learning in spite of obstacles and setbacks is facilitated when goals for learning and achievement are made explicit, are congruent with the learners desired outcomes and motives, and are supported by the learning environment, as judged by the learner; this perspective is illustrated in Box 6-2. Individuals tend to engage in activities that connect them to their social identities because doing so can support their sense of belonging and esteem and help them integrate into a social group. However, research regarding the impact of performance goals on academic outcomes has yielded mixed findings (Elliot and McGregor, 2001; Midgley et al., 2001). Moreover, in some circumstances external rewards such as praise or prizes can help to encourage engagement and persistence, and they may not harm intrinsic motivation over the long term, provided that the extrinsic reward does not undermine the individuals sense of autonomy and control over her behavior (see National Research Council, 2012c, pp. This phenomenon is known as stereotype threat, an unconscious worry that a stereotype about ones social group could be applied to oneself or that one might do something to confirm the stereotype (Steele, 1997). Which of these goals becomes salient in directing behavior at what times depends on the way the individual construes the situation. Other work (Cameron et al., 2005) suggests that when rewards are inherent in the achievement itselfthat is, when rewards for successful completion of a task include real privileges, pride, or respectthey can spur intrinsic motivation. Similar negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003). Research related to mindsets has focused on patterns in how learners construe goals and make choices about how to direct attention and effort. This integration often means taking on the particular knowledge, goals, and practices valued by that group (Nasir, 2002). The procedures people use to complete tasks and solve problems, as well as the social emotional dispositions people bring to such tasks, are similarly shaped by context and experience (Elliott et al., 2001; Oyserman, 2011).